Earthshakers: the top 100 green campaigners of all time

The Environment Agency has invited experts to name the people who have done most to save the planet

David Adam, environment correspondent
Tuesday November 28, 2006
The Guardian

From the woman who raised the alarm over the profligate use of pesticides to the doctor who discovered that chimney sweeps in 18th century London were dying because of their exposure to soot, the government's Environment Agency has named the scientists, campaigners, writers, economists and naturalists who, in its view, have done the most to save the planet.

To help celebrate its tenth anniversary, a panel of experts listed its 100 greatest eco-heroes of all time. And it does mean all time: St Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) is there, as is Siddartha Gautama Buddha, who died in 483BC.

Earthshakers: the top 100 green campaigners of all time

The Environment Agency has invited experts to name the people who have done most to save the planet

David Adam, environment correspondent
Tuesday November 28, 2006
The Guardian


A view of the Earth from the space shuttle Endeavour shows sunshine reflected off an ocean. Rising global temperatures are increasingly melting icecaps, causing storm havoc and flooding large areas. Photograph: Corbis

From the woman who raised the alarm over the profligate use of pesticides to the doctor who discovered that chimney sweeps in 18th century London were dying because of their exposure to soot, the government's Environment Agency has named the scientists, campaigners, writers, economists and naturalists who, in its view, have done the most to save the planet.

To help celebrate its tenth anniversary, a panel of experts listed its 100 greatest eco-heroes of all time. And it does mean all time: St Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) is there, as is Siddartha Gautama Buddha, who died in 483BC.

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Top of the list is Rachel Carson, a US scientist whose 1962 book, Silent Spring, is credited by many with kick-starting the modern environmental movement. Her account of the damage caused by the unrestrained industrial use of pesticides provoked controversy and fury in equal measures. Barbara Young, the Environment Agency's chief executive, said: "She started many of us off on the road to environmental protection."

At number two is the maverick economist EF Schumacher, a German national rescued from an internment camp in the English countryside by John Keynes, who went on to achieve worldwide fame with his green-tinged economic vision.

Jonathan Porritt, head of the Sustainable Development Commission, is third, with the wildlife broadcaster David Attenborough, fourth. James Lovelock, the UK scientist who developed the Gaia theory of life on earth, is fifth.

The US former vice-president turned documentary film maker Al Gore is placed ninth, while David Bellamy, the television botanist who angered some campaigners with his contrary stance on global warming, still makes the list at 18. There are journalists too, including the Guardian's George Monbiot (23) and Paul Brown (80). And some surprises: few would consider an oil boss an eco-hero, but Lord John Browne has done enough to turn BP around to make the list at 85.

Mark Funnell, managing editor of the agency's magazine Your Environment, which published the list, said: "We tend to get incredibly negative about people and their effect on the planet. There are some who have done fantastic things and we wanted to celebrate that."

Not all the candidates have left their carbon footprints on the real world. Tom and Barbara from the BBC TV show the Good Life are at 91 while Father Christmas completes the list at 100, for his "sleek, no-carbon operation".

1 Rachel Carson, Author of Silent Spring

Seen by many as the patron saint of the green movement, Rachel Carson's reputation was sealed by the 1962 publication of Silent Spring, a passionate and revelatory account of the damage done by the unrestrained use of pesticides.

A writer, scientist and ecologist from rural Pennsylvania, she studied at the Woods Hole Marine Biological Laboratory and received an MA in zoology from Johns Hopkins University in 1932.

First hired by the US Bureau of Fisheries to write radio scripts during the depression, she supplemented her income writing features on natural history for the Baltimore Sun. A 15-year career in the federal service as a scientist and editor followed from 1936, and she rose to editor in chief of all publications for the US Fish and Wildlife Service.

In 1952 she resigned to focus on writing, and published a prize-winning study of the ocean, The Sea Around Us, followed by The Edge of the Sea in 1955. Essentially a biography of the ocean, the books made Carson famous as a naturalist and science writer. Disturbed by the widespread use of synthetic chemical pesticides after the second world war, she switched focus and wrote Silent Spring. The book is credited with launching the concept of the environment as a system that sustains us and that we must learn to live within, rather than a mine, dump or playground. It infuriated government and industrial interests and she was attacked by lobbyists as an alarmist. She died in 1964 after a long battle against breast cancer.

2 EF Schumacher, Green economist

Schumacher's 1973 book Small is Beautiful rewrote the rules by questioning whether the objectives of western economics were desirable. Ernst Friedrich was born in Bonn, but made his name in the UK after attracting the attention of John Keynes. He was feted by alternative circles in the 1960s for unorthodox thinking, and his opposition to nuclear power and the use of chemicals in agriculture. He was an early critic of economic growth as a measure of national progress and helped to found the Soil Association. Small is Beautiful catapulted him to international attention: he was invited to meet US president Jimmy Carter and he even received death threats. He died in 1977.

3 Jonathan Porritt, Government adviser

An early activist with the Green party in the 1970s (then the Ecology party) and later party chairman. He gave up teaching in 1984 to lead Friends of the Earth. In 1996 he helped to found Forum for the Future. Tony Blair made him head of the Sustainable Development Commission in 2001, but he remains a critic of government policy on nuclear power and in 2005 urged the prime minister to "bang heads" across departments to combat greenhouse gas emissions. He irked some activists with his book Capitalism As If The World Matters, in which he argued that environmentalists must embrace a "evolved, intelligent and elegant" form of capitalism.

4 David Attenborough, TV naturalist

The voice of wildlife, conservation and all things that wriggle, fly and roam across planet Earth, Sir David is still going strong at 80. His programmes have brought the natural world into the living rooms of millions over 50 years and his contribution to public awareness of natural science brought him a fellowship of the Royal Society. A Reader's Digest poll this year voted him most trusted celebrity in Britain.

He has drawn rare criticism from some environmentalists, who have complained that his programmes do not sufficiently reflect man's impact on the natural world, although he has become more outspoken for green causes in recent years.

5 James Lovelock, Biologist

Best known for his Gaia theory, which says the Earth's biosphere works as a single living organism, able to manipulate the climate and chemistry of the atmosphere and the oceans to keep them fit for life. The idea was hugely influential among fellow scientists and environmentalists, and religious and spiritual thinkers. An ex-Nasa scientist, his work on the Viking Mars missions sparked an interest in the way planets function.

More recently he courted controversy by public supporting nuclear power and increasingly dire predictions on the consequences of climate change for the human race. His book The Revenge of Gaia predicts that billions will die by the end of the century, with survivors forced to live in the Arctic. He argues that the phrase "global warming" fails to reflect the seriousness of the problem and wants it replaced with "global heating".

6 Wangari Maathai, Conservationist

Africa's "tree woman'"who founded the green belt movement in Kenya in 1977 and was awarded the Nobel peace prize in 2004. The movement has since planted more than 10m trees to prevent soil erosion and provide firewood for cooking fires. Most have been planted by poor women in the villages of Kenya, restoring their environment and providing paid work. Born in 1940 in Nyeri, Wangari, she trained as a scientist in the US before returning to Kenya to do a PhD. She gained worldwide attention in 1998 by helping to defeat plans by Kenya's president to clear hundreds of acres of forest for luxury housing. Jailed several times by previous administrations, she was elected to parliament in 2002 and is now environment minister.

7 Prince of Wales, Green royal

Once derided for talking to plants, Charles Windsor's passion for the environment and green issues such as locally produced organic foods have won him admirers and brought the issues to public attention. Last year he spoke out on climate change, calling it the greatest challenge to face man.

He said: "We should be treating, I think, the whole issue of climate change and global warming with a far greater degree of priority than I think is happening now."

8 William Morris, Craftsman and writer

Remembered by environmentalists for his pioneering predictions of the problems caused by unsustainable industrialisation. His utopian view of a society in harmony with nature still inspires generations of sustainable-living advocates.

9 Al Gore, US politician

US former vice president defeated by George Bush in the infamous "hanging chad" recount presidential election of 2000. His long-lasting interest in environmental matters, and climate change in particular, was sealed with this year's release of his film An Inconvenient Truth, which has helped to drive the issue on to the mainstream agenda.

10 Gro Harlem Brundtland, Former Norwegian PM

The Scandinavian polar opposite to Margaret Thatcher during the 1980s, her views of sustainable development seemed radical at the time, but are common political language now. Her 1987 report, Our Common Future, laid the ground for the 1992 Rio Earth summit.

11 Richard Sandbrook, Campaigner

The biologist and accountant, who died last year aged 59, had a profound influence on the green movement and the world of international development. He helped to set up Friends of the Earth UK, the Eden project and Forum for the Future. At the International Institute for Environment and Development he was instrumental in bringing together the poverty and environment agendas.

12 Amory Lovins, US energy guru

Top green thinker who launched Friends of the Earth in Britain and founded the Rocky Mountain Institute, a technology thinktank that develops blueprints for low-energy devices such as the "hypercar". He says soft technologies can cut energy use by three-quarters.

13 Vandana Shiva, Campaigner

Physicist and ecologist, founding director of the Research Foundation for Science, Technology and Ecology in India and a leader in the International Forum on Globalisation. She has had a vast impact on a range of issues from forest conservation to GM crops,from world trade policy to organic farming.

14 Ansel Adams, Wilderness photographer

Well known for his photographs of the mountain ranges, deserts, rivers and skies of the US, Adams was a passionate lover of the outdoors and an active conservationist. He commented: "My approach to photography is based on my belief in the vigour and values of the world of nature - in the aspects of grandeur and of the minutiae all about us."

15 Fritjof Capra, Austrian physicist

An Austrian doctor of theoretical physics, based in California, he combines an interest in eastern mysticism with a fascination for what makes the planet tick. His most recent book, Hidden Systems: A Science for Sustainable Living, argues the need for a natural rather than a technical toolkit to tackle the impending global crisis.

16 Aldo Leopold, US ecologist

Widely acknowledged as the founder of wildlife management as a discipline and profession, he was one of the greatest US ecologists. His writings on conservation and the value of the wild to civilisation are highly regarded. The most famous, A Sand County Almanac, inspired many to follow in his footsteps.

17 Chico Mendez, Brazilian anti-logger activist

A Brazilian rubber tapper, unionist and environmental activist who fought to stop logging in the Amazon rainforest for cattle ranching. He was murdered by ranchers opposed to his activism.

18 David Bellamy, TV botanist

A formidable campaigner for green causes, including saving a Tasmanian rainforest from flooding by a dam project. In recent years his reputation has been tarnished by public statements sceptical of climate change. Fierce hater of wind farms.

19 Joseph Bazalgette, Victorian engineer

The architect of central London's sewer system who saved the city from the cholera epidemics that had ravaged it in the early 19th century.

20 John James Audubon, US naturalist and artist

Born in 1785, his seminal work, Birds of America, a collection of 435 life-sized prints, is still a standard by which modern day bird artists are measured. While living on the family estate near Philadelphia he conducted the first known bird-banding experiment in North America by tying strings around the legs of Eastern Phoebes.

21 Sir Peter Scott, conservationist

22 Tim Smit, record producer turned gardener

23 George Monbiot, author and Guardian columnist

24 Michael Meacher, former Labour environment minister

25 Ken Livingstone, mayor of London

26 Tony Juniper, campaigner

27 John Muir, conservationist

28 Kirkpatrick Macmillan, bicycle inventor

29 Arnold Schwarzenegger, bodybuilder turned actor turned US politician

30 John Ruskin, Victorian critic

31 David Bower, Friends of the Earth founder

32 Jim Hansen, Nasa scientist

33 Thomas Malthus, economist

34 Percival Potts, public health pioneer

35 David Suzuki, ecologist and television presenter

36 Max Nicholson, ornithologist

37 Mayer Hillman, climate change expert

38 Octavia Hill, open spaces campaigner

39 Dai Qing, Chinese anti-dam campaigner

40 Paul Johnson, Greenpeace scientist

41 Paul de Jongh, Dutch author

42 Dionisio Ribeiro Filho, Brazilian environmentalist

43 Andrew Lees, campaigner

44 Mike Hands, tropical ecologist

45 Petra Kelly, German green politician

46 John Dower, national parks visionary

47 St Francis of Assisi, patron saint of animals and ecology

48 Jane Goodall, primatologist

49 Henry David Thoreau, author

50 Sunita Narain, Indian campaigner

51 Lester Brown, green policy expert

52 G K Chesterton, author

53 Swampy, roads protester

54 Sir John Banham, green industrialist

55 The people of Bougainville, eco-revolutionaries

56 Caroline Lucas, green party MEP

57 Teddy Goldsmith, Ecologist magazine founder

58 George Waterson, former RSPB director

59 Gerald Durrell, author and zoologist

60 Mark Mayer, journalist

61 Marion Shoard, writer and broadcaster

62 Nan Fairbrother, author

63 George Baker, urban conservationist

64 Dame Miriam Rothschild, scientist

65 Charlene Spretnak, US author and activist

66 Richard St Barbe Baker, forester

67 Graham Wynne, RSPB chief executive

68 Conrad Waddington, animal geneticist

69 Rudolph Bahro, author

70 Nick Hildyard, campaigner

71 Christopher Lloyd, wildlife gardener

72 Jane Jacobs, Canadian writer and activist

73 Robert Heilbronner, economist

74 Michael Braungart and Bill McDonagh, co-founders of green chemicals firm MBDC

75 Karl Henrik Robert, Swedish cancer researcher

76 Sue Clifford, campaigner

77 Colin Ward, anarchist and writer

78 Stephen Jay Gould, evolutionary scientist

79 Paul Ekins, green policy expert

80 Paul Brown, journalist

81 Mahatma Gandhi, Indian leader

82 John Stewart, roads campaigner

83 Rosamund Kidman Cox, journalist

84 Bob Flowerdew, green gardener

85 Lord John Browne, BP boss

86 Colin Tudge, author

87 Charles Darwin, naturalist

88 Tony Bradshaw, urban ecologist

89 Dalai Lama, spiritual leader

90 Herman Daly, author

91 Tom and Barbara from the Good Life, TV eco warriors

92 Siddartha Gautama Buddha, spiritual leader

93 Ted Green, trees and fungi expert

94 Alfred Wallace, naturalist and rival of 87

95 Samuel Taylor Coleridge, romantic poet

96 Margot Wallstrom, EU politician

97 Dale Vince, green energy pioneer

98 Joe Strummer, former Clash frontman turned carbon offset pioneer

99 Jamie Oliver, television chef

100 Father Christmas, carbon-free delivery

Please be sure to check your email and print out the attached article. We will be reading it and discussing it in class tomorrow, in addition to the Nigerian articles.

Note: Your term papers will not be due until DECEMBER 13 (the last day of classes). Apologies for the confusion.

Iran Lecture

To Discuss – French elections/Segolene Royal

I died from minerality and became vegetable;

And From vegetativeness I died and became animal.

I died from animality and became man.

Then why fear disappearance through death?

Next time I shall die

Bringing forth wings and feathers like angels;

After that, soaring higher than angels -

What you cannot imagine,

I shall be that.

- Rumi,

Iran Chapter

First – Iran vs. Persia

Persia – generally considered the Western name for Iran, most Iranians reject it

Occasionally, however, it may refer to Iran’s pre-Islamic past (Zoroastrianism)

Those of Persian ancestry only make up 50% of Iran’s population

Sunni vs. Shia

(ask, draw diagram)

Sunni Shia

Dominant sect in Islam Minority sect in Islam

Caliph should be prominent member of Caliph should be from Muhammad’s

Community family (Ali)

Clergy is not established Clergy is established

Theological training not as important Theological training very important

Shiias often confused with violence/militarism/fundamentalism – unfair distinction

Iran History

Safavid Era: 1501-1736

Responsible for uniting Iran

Imposing the Shia belief system throughout the country – conversion was mandatory

(The Ottoman Empire was attempting to consolidate all land in the Middle East and beyond, and the Safavids saved present-day Iran from Ottoman control

Began the system of Shahs – all powerful rulers

Economy flourished as part of the SILK ROAD between Europe, Middle East, India, and Central Asia

High period of culture and literature – Iranians have a rich literary past

The Fall of the Safavids – had always had to fight the Ottomans and Uzbeks

Now – needed to stave off a growing Russia (then called Muscovy), and the Mughal Dynasty of India

Also – the decline of the Silk Road led to Iran’s economic decline (no longer a major hub of commerce, it suffered)

Continuous raids on its borders – finally, the last Safavid Shah, Ismail III, ended in 1760 when Karim Khan, a Qajar, overtook the office

Qajar Dynasty: 1781-1925

Came after a series of attempted power-grabs

Qajars: came from the area now known as Azerbaijan (then a part of Persia)

Reunified Iran (again) as it had splintered in recent years

Eliminated all enemies, and also brought Georgia and the Caucasus under Iranian control

Founded his capital in Tehran

In 1813 – went to war with Russia (both were fighting for control of the Caucasus), and Iran suffered a great defeat

Russia re-took the Caucasus and the area of Armenia and Azerbaijan

Nasser-e-Din Shah

Began the modernization of Iran

Implemented Western math, science, culture throughout the country

Tried to play the UK and Russia off of each other to preserve Iran – didn’t really work

They played “The Great Game” for control over Central Asia and beyond

Britain took over Afghanistan, Russia took over Uzbekistan/Turkmenistan, Iran surrounded by enemies

Gradually, Qajar Shahs were perceived to be in the pockets of foreign interests, as foreign countries paid for expensive vacations

Also – signed over Iran’s oil fields (its main source of wealth) to the British in 1901 for a period of 60 years)

Iranians felt the Shahs were out of touch with the people, and also were acting at the behest of other countries’ interests

Many uprisings in early 20^th century, culminating in the

Constitutional Revolution (1905-1911)

Iranians grew tired of feudalistic system of Shahs and nobility

Tired of being used as a pawn between colonial powers (England, France, Russia) in the Great Game – had made Iran very weak and ineffectual

As Nasser-e-Din tried to rule the country, he found he couldn’t because of foreign interests – finally, signed over more and more control of the Iranian economy

Accomplishments:

· Created a parliament (The Majlis)

· Constitutional monarchy

· Washed away the old order, brought in the new

· Brought Reza Shah Pahlavi to the throne

Reza Shah Pahlavi

Controlled Persia from 1925-1935

Controlled Iran from 1935-1941

Coup overthrowing the Qajars took place in 1921 – but Majlis didn’t make it official until 1925

Tried to westernize Iran further – constructured roads, railways, sent many students to Europe

Attempted to fully industrialize the nation

But very dictatorial, very repressive of religion (his was a secular regime)

Forbade the chador, the burqha, and the veil – wanted everyone to dress in a Western style

Became enormously wealthy

Reza Shah abdicated in 1941 (pressured by UK/Russia, afraid he would ally with the Nazis)

Mohammad Reza Shah took the throne

Mohammad Reza Shah

Learned the lesson from his father’s abdication – support the west

Allowed the Western powers to control Iranian politics

1951 – election of the popular Mohammad Mossadegh, became PM of Iran

He and his party voted to NATIONALIZE the oil industry

Meaning – Iran re-seized control of the oil industry, foreign powers would have to pay Iran directly

Britain fumed – put an embargo on Iranian oil, wanted to oust Mossadegh, but Truman wanted no part of it

1953 – Ike comes into power, persuaded that Mossadegh is allied with Iran’s Tudeh Communist Party (remember, Cold War)

Then – upheaval. Mo tried to get Shah to leave the country, he initially refused then fled to Rome – when pro-Shah tanks descended on Tehran. 300 dead. Military intervened, Mo surrenders, is arrested, tried for treason, gets 3 years in prison.

MI5 and CIA had their hands in this, and Iranians would then blame the west for deposing their popularly elected leader and financing/supporting an unwanted Shah.

Reza Shah’s Regime is noted for:

· White Revolution – modernization, women’s suffrage, land reform, economic success

· Severe oppression – the SAVAK – surveillance, assassination of opposition leaders, intimidation, torture

· Excessive support of Western states – perceived as ignoring the needs of the Iranians to court the French, the English, the Americans, etc

· Equally hostile to Islam – replaced Islamic calendar with Pahlavi calendar, continued restrictions on chador/veil

· Many perceived it as a time of absolute decadence

Set the stage for the ISLAMIC REVOLUTION

Note: Many who supported this revolution did not want a strict Islamic state – they were fighting for freedom from oppression and an elected government. Many have since become disillusioned with the revolution.

Khomeini – a religious scholar who became politically active during the White Revolution – railed against the westernization policies of the Shah, felt it was destroying traditional Iran, denounced both the Shah and the US, and was exiled (spent many years in Najaf, then Paris

Advocated a very strict application of Shari’a (Islamic) law , also wanted to “cleanse” Iran of all Western influence

Declared a provisional govt in February 1979 – March 1979 – 98% of all Iranians voted for a new Islamic republic

Under Khomeini:

- following the Islamic law was compulsory (dress code for both men - no shorts – and women – no hair)

- Islamic Republican Guards – forcefully implemented these laws

- Executed many of the families who had benefited under the Pahlavi regime

- Curbed freedom of speech and the press

- Legal system in turmoil, many women judges are demoted or pushed out

- Iran-Iraq War (1980-88), very costly, very deadly (killed 500,000), Iran and Iraq fighting for power in the Middle East – allowed Khomeini to really crack down on Iran, invoking “war measures”

Structure of Iranian Government:

Supreme Leader

Originally, the Ayatollah Khomeini – now it’s Khameini, supposedly hand-picked by Khomeini

Embodies the ideals of the revolution

Oversees all major political appointments (Guardian Council, judiciary, confirms pres election), holds most of the power in the system

At times, can be real friction between President and Supreme Leader

Guardian Council

Acts as an upper house of parliament that can veto the Majlis’ legislation

Has usually blocked reforms

Officially – it is supposed to protect the constitution and Islamic values

(Composed of six Ayatollahs, six lawyers)

Monitors all elections, and can bar candidates – for instance, the council banned all but six of more than 1,000 hopefuls in the 2005 elections.

Expediency Council

Advises leader, and can also decide disputes between parliament and Guardian Council (usually sides with GC). All members are appointed by Supreme Leader

Head of Judiciary

Defines legal policy, makes sure Islamic law is enforced

Lately, has helped to shut down reforms, and imprison journalists

ELECTED OFFICIALS –

President

Elected every 4 years

2^nd highest executive role – but really, the Supreme Leader ultimately controls everything

Parliament/Majlis

290 members

Elected every 4 years

Introduces/passes laws

Assembly of Experts

Elected every 8 years

86 members

Only clerics are allowed to run

Decide who the next Supreme Leader is, and makes sure the current one is fit to perform

In reality – very little power is held by the elected officials. It is all in the hands of the Supreme Leader, the Guardian Council, and the Expediency Council

Next phase – the Rafsanjani Years

Khomeini died in 1989, replaced by Khameini (even more conservative)

Rafsanjani elected President – after Iran/Iraq war, needed to rebuild the economy. The thrust of his presidency was devoted to privatizing major industries and stimulating economic growth. He also encouraged women to join the work force, a change from Khomeini’s policies

Third Phase – the election of Mohammad Khatami

The world expected a real revolution after Khatami was elected with 70% of the vote in 1997. He was not austere, he actually talked to people (kissing babies, etc), and people responded to that.

He was also a noted reformer who fought against censorship, the closing of newspapers, and the sidelining of women

However – his inability to enact real reform shows what a stranglehold the Supreme Leader/Guardian Council has on the country

- they closed supporting newspapers

- they jailed members of parliament who agreed with reforms

Khatami advocated gradual change

His accomplishments:

Appointed a female to the Cabinet

Eased religious restrictions on lifestyle

Made it easier for individuals to organize

Tried to stop censorship

Has worked to improve relationship with US/EU – unlike the current president

Open protests

Student Riots of 1999 – students were among the biggest supporters of Khatami when he first came into office. However, they grew frustrated by his inability to pass real reforms, and his willingness to bend to the ruling structure

July 1999 – reformist newspaper Salam is closed, students rally

University of Tehran dorms – became the center of the battle between students and militant groups deployed by the government (sent in by the Supreme Leader, not the President)

Spread to all major Iranian cities – Tabriz, Mashad, Shiraz, and Isfahan

Quashed by the police on July 11 – but represented the frustration with the Khatami regime

(discuss picture)

Some quotations from Khatami, at the end of his presidency

“If I retreated, I retreated against the system I believed in. I considered it necessary to save the ruling establishment.”

“Fortunately my tenure [as President] is coming to an end.”

"I have claims against some reformers who ... limited all demands of the people to certain political demands, provoking rigid hard-liners," said Khatami. "(I) have claims against rigid evil thinkers who failed to see people's demands for reform and instead of respecting (the) people's vote (they) began resisting them."

"The only way to save the country is to establish democracy," said Khatami. "The way toward democracy is through and within the Islamic Republic."

The election of Ahmadinejad

Former engineer, and mayor of Tehran

He is not a moderate

Some say he was a party to the Iran hostage crisis in 1979

Has rolled back certain reforms put in place under Khatami – has forbidden western music/television within the country

But his main concern has been to reassert Iran’s power within international politics, pushing for the right for nuclear arms and an even negotiating position with the EU and the US

Many saw the election of Ahmadinejad as a reaction against the West, who was clearly hoping for a more moderate candidate

Iranians are a very proud people and will not be bullied into deciding to please others

With Ahmadeinejad, very unlikely that structure of Islamic Republic will be challenged

Other important people

Shirin Ebadi

First female judge in Iran, serving Tehran

1979 – was forced to resign her post (women were kicked out of judiciary)

Established independent law practice – fights for minority rights, women’s rights, freedom of the press

Awarded the 2003 Nobel Peace Prize

Has been imprisoned, has been threatened with death

But continues to fight on

GLOBALIZATION

Many definitions:

Economist: the emergence of a global market

Historian: Epoch dominated by global capitalism

Sociologist: underscores celebration of diversity, convergence of social preferences in matters of lifestyle and social values

Political scientist: gradual erosion of political sovereignty

3 Ps

Globalization as a PHENOMENON

manifests the extremely intricate interconnectedness of human life across the planet

ex: greater awareness of the environment

Globalization as a P HILOSOPHY

Reality of being interconnected - globalism

Affects all aspects of life - political, corporate, cultural, environmental

The world is rapidly integrating in all spheres. Peoples' economic, political and cultural expectations are converging.

INEVITABLE AND IRREVERSIBLE

Globalization as a PROCESS

Internet - eliminated physical, temporal, and cultural

States need ways to GOVERN globalization without IMPEDING it

Therefore, reliance on bodies like the UN and WTO

ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION: Usually seen as an economic phenomenon, involving the increasing integration of national economic systems through the growth in international trade, investment, and capital flows

Which has LED to a rapid increase in cross-border social, cultural, and technological exchange as part of the phenomenon

Anthony Giddens: (sociologist) decoupling of space and time, emphasizing that with instantaneous communications, knowledge and culture could be shared around the world simultaneously

FIVE TYPES OF GLOBAL INTERCONNECTIVITY

Arjun Appadurai: social theorist

Ethnoscapes: movements of people (tourists, immigrants, refugees, business travelers)

Financescapes: global flows of money, often driven by interconnected currency markets, stock exchanges, commodity markets

Ideoscapes: global spread of ideas and political ideologies (Greenpeace)

Mediascapes: global distribution of media images that appear on computer screens, newspapers, television, radio

Technoscapes: movement of technologies around the globe (Green Revolution in rice cultivation introduced western farming practices into many developing countries)

WHEN DID GLOBALIZATION BEGIN?

No real agreed starting point

First expansion of European capitalism took place in 16th century, following colonisation

Late 19th Century - big expansion in world trade and investment. Ended with WWI and the bout of anti-free trade protectionism that led to the Great Depression of 1930. (Interruption of the process)

Internationalisation - increased with the establishment of International Date Line - 1921 - and the nearly universal adoption of the Gregorian calendar between 1875 and 1925

End of WWII brought another era of increased global trade - saw development of MNCs. Emancipation of colonies also contributed to greater global trade. Air travel/international communications led to more globalization

Fall of Berlin Wall/Collapse of USSR - signaled victory for capitalism.

Development of the Internet

MAJOR PLAYERS IN GLOBALIZATION

IMF

WB

OECD - Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development - develops economic and social policy for its 29 members (North Am, West Europe, Japan, Korea, NZ, Oz)

UNCTAD - United Nations Conference on Trade and Development - permanent intergov'tal body of UN, aims to maximise trade investment and development opportunities of developing economies and assist in their efforts to integrate into the world economy

WEF - World Economic Forum - private non-profit that operates conferences on business, political, intellectual, and other society leaders -- Davos Meeting - major policy hub

FIVE KEY FACTORS OF ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION

1.A new international division of labor

changes: US has declined as an industrial producer (compared to Japan and the resurgence of Europe)

new int'l division of labor has involved the decentralization of manufacturing production from all of these core regions to some semiperipheral and peripheral countries.

1995: US companies employed 5.5 m overseas workers (80 percent in manufactur)

new specializations have emerged within core regions of World System: high tech manufacturing and producer services (global trade grown much more rapidly over 25 years than has global production -- points to increased economic integration

2. Internationalization of Finance

emergence of global banking and globally integrated financial markets

due to massive increases in levels of int'l direct investment

capacity of computers and information systems to deal with changing conditions has added a speculative component to the internationalization of finance - 100 bn worth of currencies are traded EVERY DAY. this volume creates a NEED for int'l banks and financial institutions to handle investments on LARGE SCALE - London, Frankfurt, NY, Tokyo

3. New Technology System

based on advances in solar energy, robotics, microelectronics, biotechnology, digital telecommunications, computerized information systems.

expanded the global reach of finance and industry

has allowed investment and trade to become much more flexible

new technology in transport and communications: shipping, railroad, and high way systems, wide-bodied cargo jets, development of fax machines, fiberoptic networks, communications satellites, and email and information-retrieval systems (databases)

also allowed wider political, social, and cultural change

4. Homogenization of Internat'l Consumer Markets

New and materialistic internat'l culture

people save less, borrow more, defer parenthood, indulge in affordable luxuries

style is transmitted through global media

growth in popularity of German luxury cars, Swiss watches, French wines, etc

reinforced by internationalization of television - CNN, MTV

5. Transnational corporation

has investments and industries that span internat'l boundaries, with subsidiary companies and factors in several countries

in 1997, the top 100 TNCs held 1.8 trillion in foreign assets, sold products worth 2.1 trillion abroad, and employed more than 6 mill abroad

pivotal player in geographical restructuring that has occurred over past 25 years

Geographical restructuring: when an unprecedented amount of economic, political, social, and cultural activity has spilled beyond the geographic and institutional boundaries of states

EFFECTS OF ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION:

Trade Creation Effects - Removal of trade barriers leads to a more pronounced regional division of labor.

Production reallocated from HIGH COST to LOW COST settings (core to periphery)

Usually means costs are lower for consumers

Very beneficial for those countries included in this system

OUTSOURCING - also referred to as "offshoring"

the delegation of non-core operations or jobs from internal production within a business to an external entity (like a subcontractor)

Trade diversion effects - for those not a part of a trade association, consumption is based on high-cost goods, because they will not have access to low-cost goods

Benefits to Economic Globalization:

offers access to foreign capital, global export markets, and advanced technology

breaks monopoly of inefficient and protected domestic producers

leads to faster growth

which leads to poverty reduction, democratization, higher labor and environmental standards

Disadvantages:

Free trade in raw materials slows development

Sheltering young industries are necessary for them to compete with established industries

etc

GLOBALIZATION'S EFFECT ON POVERTY

Some say globalization is to blame for poverty. Is this true?

First - globalization is the combination of MANY FORCES. The economy is integrated in many ways (labor, foreign direct investment, trade, govt borrowing).

Poverty is a multidimensional phenomenon - poverty too has many causes

Also - many different ways of measuring poverty

Globalization and Poverty - some claim poverty is decreasing

World Bank: In 2001, 1.1 billion people (21% of world pop) were impoverished

In 1981, 1.5 billion people (40% of world pop) were impoverished

Poverty in specific countries: those countries with open markets and active trading links often have lower levels of poverty than nations that are relatively isolated from the global market

POLITICAL GLOBALIZATION:

Suddenly, the status of the NATION-STATE is not as solid as it used to be.

Many people believe that Globalization is decreasing the power of the state: erosion of borders, lack of power over economic forces, more regional and international cooperation

INSTITUTIONALIZATION OF IGOS AND GLOBAL GOVERNANCE

1900: 37 IGOs

2000: 300

shows political co-ordination amongst governments, intergovernmental, and transnational agencies

BUT - it is scarred by enormous inequalities of power, and it is still a product of the inter-state system (still at the mercy of the states)

IT HAS CREATED THE INFRASTRUCTURE OF A GLOBAL POLITY and new arenas through which globalization itself is promoted, contested, or regulated.

TRANSNATIONALIZATION OF POLITICAL ACTIVITY

Internat'l NGOs - INGOS

1909 - 371

2000 - 25,000

explosion of "citizen democracy" - creates communities that cross national borders, with the purpose of advancing mutual goals or bringing governments and formal institutions of global governance to account for activities.

CHANGES IN INTERNATIONAL LAW

New trends in 20th century law - law governing war, crimes against humanity, environmental issues and human rights

emerging framework of "cosmopolitan law" - circumscribes and delimits the political power of individual states

COSMOPOLITAN - the idea that all human beings belong to the same community

in theory - states no longer have the right to do whatever they want with their citizens

increasing INTERNALIZATION OF INTERNAT'L LAW - exercise of restraint

So the Westphalian state (sole source of authority) has been transformed - now authority rests above, alongside, and below the state\

political communities are being TRANSFORMED -

No longer a clear-cut distinction between DOMESTIC and INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

national political communities are becoming involved in regional and international policymaking

Ex: Europe has MULTI-LEVEL GOVERNANCE

Example of Scotland - Ruled by Devolved powers of Scotland and Scottish Law

Still have some authority in UK

Also resolve issues within the EU

Levels can be: city, local, region, state, suprastate

Leads to:

erosion of national identity

reinforcement of local identity

GLOBAL SCOPE OF PROBLEMS reinforces this, undercuts states' ability to protect citizens

AVIAN FLU

HIV/AIDS PANDEMIC

HUMAN TRAFFICKING

NON STATE TERRORIST GROUPS

Some believe that states will strengthen their power - others believe the states will dissolve into weaker political organizations

CULTURAL GLOBALIZATION/SOCIAL GLOBALIZATION

Greater intercultural exchanges

Spreading of MULTICULTURALISM - managing cultural diversity in a MULTI-ETHNIC society, stressing mutual respect and tolerance for different cultures within a country's borders

Better access to CULTURAL DIVERSITY - easier to access foreign films, newspapers, books, music, etc

food globalization - pizza and curry (and Chinese)

increasing travel, tourism, and immigration

Greater accommodation of cultures -

GLOCALIZATION - "local" is integrated into "global" - resolves in the heterogenization of cultures, as local cultures of particular areas are spread around the world - cultures clash with newly introduced cultural concepts

Ex: Museums - take local culture and history, and prepare them for mass consumption for tourists

Also, it's the creation and distribution of products intended for global market, but customized to suit local laws or culture

Using electronic communications like the Internet, to provide local services on a global basis. Craigslist

efforts to make the local Wal-Mart reflect its environment

Opposite force:

Grobalization: can also be referred to as McDonaldization

defined as the "imperialistic ambitions of nations, corporations, organizations, and their desire to impose themselves on various geographic areas"

ex: McDonald's does not attempt to incorporate the local culture into its venues

CULTURAL IMPERIALISM - the practice of promoting a culture or language of one nation or another. Can either be an active formal policy, or a general attitude

In the 20th century, the US and USSR were both susceptible to this criticism.

Americanisation of music, culture, television - led to protectionism of culture in France

and Canada (Canadian Content Laws)

However - US is not alone

China also engages in cultural imperialism - especially in trying to crush the indigenous cultures of Tibet and Xinjiang, flooding the areas with Han settlers. Also, pushing for the standardized Chinese language could be counted as cultural imperialism, because it's seeking to eradicate local dialects

Culturally - globalization might be damaging as well

VANISHING CULTURES - National Geographic estimates that every 2 weeks, a culture vanishes from the earth

Of approximately 6,000 languages existing in the world today, 90 percent may face extinction

UNESCO - UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization is striving to protect cultures from disappearing

EMERGENCE OF A GLOBAL CIVIL SOCIETY

seen by many to emerge as a reaction to CORPORATE GLOBALIZATION

began to assert itself in the protests against the WTO and the IMF

also referred to as Cosmocracy

private, non profit sector organizations, seeking to exert influence on global policy decisions

a major economic force - 1.2 trillion in expenditures, 31 million full time workers

Global presence - there are more in developed countries than developing, but they are in nearly every country in the world

GLOBAL ISSUES

DIGITAL DIVIDE

Socioeconomic difference between communities in their access to computers and the INTERNET

can also refer to gaps between groups in their abilities to USE these technologies (due to literacy and training problems)

difference in the rates of using the internet for business and development is reflected in the development speed of vulnerable LDCs

Internet - could be the "great equalizer"

Obstacles to bridging the gap:

Buying and deploying computers inside developing nations, as well as networking technologies

Discuss Laptop Idea of the UN

Bandwidth needs to be paid for

sometimes, there isn't the infrastructure in all areas

GLOBAL BRAIN DRAIN

The migration of more qualified citizens of the developing world to the richer countries

Reasons: wage differentiation, job security, stability

India: loses $2 bn/year because of the immigration of computer professionals to the US

International Organization for Migration created program to encourage African nationals to return home

Norway tops UN list of best countries

Associated Press

Oslo — The United Nations ranked Norway as the best country to live in for a sixth consecutive year Thursday, prompting its aid minister to tell Norwegians to stop whining about wanting more.

Canada ranked sixth on the index.

Oil-rich Norway, with its generous welfare state, topped the UN Development Program's human development index, based on such criteria as life expectancy, education and income.

Iceland was No. 2, followed by Australia, Ireland, Sweden, Canada, Japan and the United States.

Read more

Less Developed and Newly Industrializing Countries

Latin America, Asia, and Africa

"Third World" - term originally stated by Jawaharlal Nehru to label the countries of the "Non-Aligned Movement" - now, however, it has come to mean countries that have ranked very poorly on the UN HDI

Other terms - Least Developed Countries (LDCs), Vulnerable Countries, Developing Countries, or the "Global South" or "Periphery"

Countries characterized by:

mixture of premodern and modern institutions

varieties of economic systems

varieties of political systems

Understanding the Developing World

developing economies and political systems

got a "late start" in comparison to Atlantic democracies (up for contention)

were not able to develop independently - usually invaded by stronger powers

usually grapple with poverty, health crises, and economic inbalances

3/4 of the globe's population fall under the category of the "Developing World"

raising "Malthusian spectre"

Thomas Malthus - British political economist 1766-1834

PRINCIPLE OF POPULATION - population would

eventually outrun food supply

leads to a decrease in food per person

Population is based on EXPONENTIAL RATE -

2, 4, 8, 16, etc

Food on LINEAR rate - 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

Natural causes (old age, accidents), Misery (war, famine), moral restraint (Infanticide, murder, contraception and homosexuality) could check excessive population growth -

Malthus himself supported contraception and abstinence - but only for LOWER social classes

the foundation for many development agencies' thinking today, as well as the encouragement of contraception and abstinence

So what causes countries to be UNDERDEVELOPED?

UNDERDEVELOPMENT - state of a country that has not reached maturity, very uneven outcomes

1. Differences in local and regional cultures

different responses to the world system. and its economic and political logic

responses range from acceptance and cooperation - to resistance and insurrection

a lot depends on cultural compatibility to the values of materialism, individualism,

competitiveness, popular democracy, etc that seem to dominate the contemporary

world system

so, Iran attempts to REMOVE itself from world-system (decadence of capitalist West)

potentially depriving citizens of benefits of growth

2. Geographical spread of the world system

patterns of incorporation into world-system have been varied

so in North America - largely successful incorporation, however, displaced indigenous

peoples

Africa and Brazil - world system imposed on subjugated peoples

Incorporation could be deep and widespread (Egypt/India), in others, patchy and

superficial (Cambodia, Libya)

Sometimes incorporation was imposed for ECONOMIC reasons (Brazil and Malaysia),

in others for POLITICAL reasons (Somalia - very geostrategic)

3. Some states have responded to unevenness of the system by pursuing ALTERNATIVES to trade-based capitalism

China, USSR, Eastern European satellites, and Cuba

a socialist way of life - yes, but it could also be a reclamation from Western and capitalist

domination

Global South can be divided into two areas: Newly Industrializing Countries and Least Developed Countries

NICs:

some level of industrialisation

a switch from agricultural to industrial economies

increased social freedoms and rights

an increasingly "open" economy, allowing for freer trade with neighbours

label first applied to "East Asian tigers" but now include Mexico, Turkey, Thailand, and South Africa --- China and India might apply - however, their massive populations will mean that their average incomes will still remain low

Least Developed Countries (LDCs)

sometimes referred to as "Fourth World"

about 50 countries worldwide

usually very low on the HDI list

characteristics:

poor, underdeveloped nations usually grappling with widespread conflict and political instability

no significant economic development or political institutionalization

usually run by corrupt and inefficient DICTATORSHIPS

very little democracy or freedom

ethnic clashes, ongoing scars of colonialism

almost half of LDCs are in Africa

Asia (10): Bhutan, Bangladesh, Cambodia

Africa (34): Chad, DRC, Mali, Niger, Senegal, Sierra Leone

Oceania (5): Samoa, Vanuatu

Caribbean: Haiti

Evolution of NICs and LDCs -

IMPERIALISM AND COLONIALISM

Imperialism: the system whereby a state extends its power in order to directly control territory, resources, and people beyond its borders

Colonialism: the physical occupation of a foreign territory through military force, businesses, or settlers

Colonialism is a goal of imperialism - but used interchangeably

Imperialism began with Spain's conquest of the Americas in the 16th century - established control over South and Central America

British then extended their empire -- "sun never sets on the British empire" - India, Africa, Asia, an extensive world empire

Germans held portions of East Africa, Belgium held Congo, Portugal held Brazil

Scramble for Africa (1880s - WWI)

saw European powers move from "informal" empire --- control through military and economic dominance -- to DIRECT control

David Livingstone, did the mapping of Africa, utilized by imperialists

attracted by Africa's natural resources - the richest continent - diamonds, oil, cotton, rubber, tin

also - European markets were CONTRACTING - and they needed to expand

hence, Africa was carved up into portions

Causes of this "New Imperialism":

competition for trade

superior military force

European power politics (balance of power)

racist belief in Euro superiority ("White Man's Burden," Rudyard Kipling)

Negative aspects of colonialism:

deprived developing societies of their right to self-government

forced indigenous tribes to give the colonizers control of their resources

rule by unelected individuals

shameless exploitation

creation of ethnic groups and ethnic conflicts that before did not exist (Belgium in Rwanda)

etc

Benefits of colonization:

opened up many societies to new trade with the West - although trade was usually heavily balanced in the West's favor

created new infrastructure - transportation systems, water-delivery systems, communications systems to facilitate commerce

argument that the peripheral regions didn't have the capital to implement these reforms

however - many of these advancements only fitted the needs of the colonizers - NOT the colonized people

Overpromotion of URBANIZATION - led to OVERURBANIZATION

cities were growing more rapidly, jobs and housing couldn't keep up, results in widespread unemployment, environmental problems, and inadequate housing and public welfare provisions

OTHER INSTITUTIONS OF COLONIALISM

Exporting the state

States became the supreme political order in the periphery - no longer tribes and clans

Problems with border formation - often reflected the needs of the EUROPEAN POWER STRUGGLE, than ACTUAL ethnic and tribal borders

Also - by IMPOSING borders, European powers did not allow states to consolidate BY themselves - therefore, setting the stage for future conflict and state weakness

ex: Biafra in Nigeria, Eritrea in Ethiopia, the Sudan

Bureaucratization of the State

Europeans favored a decentralized and removed system to organize society and resolve disputes

African society, however, had its own methods for conflict resolution

Not the decentralized and chaotic power structure which we may assume

Chinua Achebe - Nigerian author who attempted to show what a bad fit bureaucratic rule was for Africa in Things Fall Apart

general idea that Africa had no real culture and should adopt Western ways

Achebe wished to show the great diversity and evolution of African culture - most of all, he was tired of western writers - notably Joseph Conrad and Heart of Darkness - having the last word on Africa

Ethnicity, Nationalism, and Gender

New ideas brought by Europeans - not entirely good

Encouraged competition and conflict between various groups on the continent

Splintered potential unity against the white oppressors

Colonial elites shaped and formed national identities - structured political and social classes out of them

ex: new class of bureaucrats, lawyers, teachers, journalists, and bureaucrats sprang up due to British educational system, were coopted by the British to maintain the empire

National identity - another powerful idea sweeping the Global South

however - national identity is not something that enables the Imperial system to flourish, esp when the subjugated peoples are developing their own

DECOLONISATION

1922-1975 - some states began to revolt after the first World War (Egypt), resistance to the colonial system grew in the interbellum years - really took off after WWII

Self-determination gathered steam

Japan - non-White power that had defeated Western nations - it IS possible

Second wave: 1947 (Indian independence) to 1960

Causes:

World War II - drained Western powers monetarily and militarily

Great Depression - very damaging to rural colonies, agricultural products esp. hard hit, weren't adequately fixed by colonial powers

Bureaucratic rule - development of local BOURGEOISIE - who embraced new ideas of NATIONALISM (esp. in British Empire)

John Kenneth Galbraith - famous Canadian/US economist - argued that it had nothing to do with spread of nationalism - but stemmed from ECONOMIC DISINTEREST

The engine of economic well-being was now within and between the advanced industrial countries. Domestic economic growth — as now measured and much discussed — came to be seen as far more important than the erstwhile colonial trade... The economic effect in the United States from the granting of independence to the Philippines was unnoticeable. The departure of India and Pakistan made small economic difference in Britain. Dutch economists calculated that the economic effect from the loss of the great Dutch empire in Indonesia was compensated for by a couple of years or so of domestic post-war economic growth. The end of the colonial era is celebrated in the history books as a triumph of national aspiration in the former colonies and of benign good sense on the part of the colonial powers. Lurking beneath, as so often happens, was a strong current of economic interest — or in this case, disinterest."

Two differing paths to independence: Botswana and Zimbabwe

Botswana - became a British protectorate after the Batswana and Boer settlers had conflicts (Boers -- descendents of Dutch farmer settlers who inhabited the Cape of Africa - spoke Afrikaans) 1888

Enjoyed British protection until 1964, when they petitioned the government to allow them to implement democratic self-governmnet. 1965 constitution led to first general elections, to independence in 1966

Zimbabwe - 1888 - Cecil Rhodes comes on the scene (British imperial capitalist, very exploitative of Africa's natural resources - also founded Rhodes Scholarships). Obtained a charter from the British to found RHODESIA - encompassed the area now known as Zimbabwe and Zambia.

1922 - became a self-governing COLONY

1953 - became a part of Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (modern-day Malawi)

1963 - Federation dissolved, but British imposed a policy known as NIBMAR - No Independence before Majority African Rule - basically, British said that these states had to implement democratic reforms and illustrate that the majority would rule - NOT the colonial white elite

In response - PM Ian Smith made a declaration of independence (very strong white presence in Zimbabwe). Smith had an apartheid like system in place

Civil war - Africans began to engage in GUERRILLA ATTACKS against white settlers

Eventually defeated Rhodesian military front - negotiated with:

ZIMBABWE AFRICAN NATIONAL UNION (ZANU) led by Robert Mugabe.

Another group - ZIMBABWE AFRICAN PEOPLE'S UNION

These two groups joined to form PATRIOTIC FRONT - PF

Hence - ZANU-PF

So very different ways

In Africa, 2 remarkable factors about decolonization:

Speed with which it occurred

Lack of violence - only 3 countries had serious wars:

Sudan - civil war on religious conflict

Algeria - bitter war against France, which did not want to relinquish its power

Rwanda - Hutus asserted control over Tutsis

Violence occurred also in countries with significant white settler populations - notably Rhodesia, South Africa, and Kenya

HOWEVER - WEAKENED STATE OF WEST MADE INDEPENDENCE WARS EASIER TO WIN

THE DEVELOPMENT PARADIGM

At first, it was believed that the economies of LDCs couldn't be compared with developed economies, and that new models would have to be constructed

DEVELOPMENT PARADIGM - GENERAL IDEA THAT ALL ECONOMIES WILL END UP CAPITALIST AND DEVELOPED

Is this true? Should this be altered? Is it absolutely necessary for countries to develop capitalist economy for economic well-being?

Yes

Enables greater trade opportunities --> leads to greater wealth and stability

Also, facilitates the development of a free and fair democratic government

No

Some cultures and economies are not receptive to the ideas of capitalism - esp materialism and cutthroat competition. Therefore, these societies would flourish in an alternative economic system

POSTCOLONIAL AFRICA

Post-colonial states had a hard time restructuring their economies, because of the economic relationships of their dependent economies (relying on mother country for all industrialised goods, providing raw materials to only the mother country)

Also, many states found themselves without the necessary resources to provide for their citizens - also, had many difficulties in managing different cultures and religions within their borders

Problems creating national identities: due to arbitrarily imposed boundaries, and ethnic and religious divisions

led to war, hostilities, and instability

Africa was frequently used as a pawn in Cold War skirmishes

Examples: Suez Crisis

South Africa's role in refueling the war in Angola

overthrow of Kwame Nkrumah - founder of Pan-Africanism, founder and first president of Ghana

Colin Legum describes African history since independence in three stages:

A. The Romantic Period (1939-1970)

belief in self-determination

felt that Africa could be a major world power centre because of its resources and its expansive population

The rulers were local modernizing elites - wanted to implement development strategies to allow Africa to "catch up" with the West and be on an equal playing field

used the institutions of the colonizers to implement their programs and organize their government

However, 3 factors led to the failure of this aim:

1. Foreign control of African economies (MNCs, trading companies, banks, etc), lack of economic independence

NEOCOLONIALISM - developed nations aim to control developing nations through indirect means, much like under colonialism - use economic, financial, and trade policies to dominate less powerful countries

2. Tendency toward democratic centralism

No room for devolution or cultural or regional accomodation

3. Personalization of politics

Removed questions from PARTIES - became a competition between INDIVIDUALS for STATE POWER

B. Era of disillusionment

became clear that Africa was not going to follow in the footsteps of Europe in political or economic development

1966-1993 - 63 military coups, 24 violent conflicts

10 million deaths, 50 mill wounded, 20 mill became refugees or IDPs

Rise of MILITARY REGIMES

very successful

usually led by MODERNIZING ELITE

resulted from failure of post-independence institutions:

inadequate checks and balances on branches

lack of accountability and transparency

absence of CIVIL SOCIETY

military regimes were as equally corrupt and mismanaged as the previous governments

also, re-emergence of tribalism and ethnicity - most states were multiethnic and multinational

corruption was RAMPANT in all government ministries

serious economic decline

beginning of 90s - 42 states under military or one-party rule

C. The Period of Realism (1985-present)

A realisation that something must be done

Rampant dictatorships, poor economies, corruption need to be handeled

no African country ranks well in HDI

1990 - 216 mill in poverty

2000 - 304b mill

women and female-headed households hit hardest

unemployment is at 22%

underemployment - 100 million

So - greater transnational cooperation

Organization of African Unity, concerted attempts to work together to solve Africa's problems and intervene in conflicts

Since 1980 - 29 serious election campaigns

only six military regimes remaining

Economic recovery: growth rates are up for most countries

Now, Africa is in a state of "transitional democracies"

Things are looking up - but there is a LOT to do still

Returning to Economic matters -

So, the idea of neocolonialism is rampant

development - too often the path of development is determined by what the European market needs, not what the developing society needs

Dependency theory

- Dependency theory posits that the cause of the low levels of development in less economically developed countries (LEDC's) is caused by their reliance and dependence on more economically developed countries (MEDC's) -

i.e. the LEDC's are undeveloped because they rely on the MEDC's.

Some proponents of dependency theory assert that LEDC's will remain less developed because the surplus that they produce will be siphoned off by MEDC's - under the guise of multinational corporations. There is, as such, no profit left for reinvestment and development.

ex: Caribbean - produces sugar for the developed world, doesnt have the resources to industrialize

Washington Consensus - f ocus on a certain form of free market economic liberalisation - however, the removal of trade barriers and protective tariffs usually harm developing societies more than helping them

Two policies that were applied through developing world:

Import substitution - ISI - trade and economic policy based on the premise that a developing country should attempt to SUBSTITUTE products which it imports, with locally produced substitutes

That way - REDUCE dependency on external trade

INDUSTRIALIZE the nation

Three components:

a. active industrial policy to subsidize and orchestrate production of strategic substitutes

b. protective barriers to trade

c. monetary policy that keeps the domestic currency strong

In Latin America - followed from 50s to 70s - deemed very successful in creating economic growth - ISI MOST SUCCESSFUL in countries with large populations and high living standards

ISI was REJECTED by East Asia, who later went on to have substantial economic growth.

So - not sure if it really works, as in most economic theories

EXPORT-ORIENTED INDUSTRIALIZATION (EOI)

a trade and economic policy aiming to speed up the industrialization process of a country through exporting goods for which the nation has a comparative advantage.

requires opening up domestic markets to foreign competition in exchange for market access in other countries

needs: reduced tariff barriers, devaluation of currency, and government support for exporting sectors

Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Singapore all followed this path

STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMS

International Monetary Fund - before they give out loans to struggling nations, they must agree to abide by these programs

Components: Cutting social expenditure

Lifting export and import restrictions

Increasing stability of investment

Removing price controls and state subsidies

Privatization of state-owned enterprises

Critics: describe SAPs as a new form of neocolonialism

Africa: before loan forgiveness program that was announced last week (in which 18 LDCs were awarded debt forgiveness), it paid more money every year to the IMF than to all the money it receives in loans from them

Privatizing industries - critics say it results in deteriorating health, education, an inability to develop infrastructure, and in general, lower living standards

Prospects for Democracy and Development?

Some say the world is moving towards great things - and will be able to overcome the past

However, others see still too many obstacles to reducing global poverty and global inequality

State capacity:

it's been shown, esp in Africa, that giving the state too much power doesn't ensure stability or democracy

but is lessening state power the answer? Then, you're compromising the ability of the state to deal with crises, to provide for the people (infrastructure, etc), and for the economy to flourish

MERITOCRACY - rule by merit, not by connections

the opposite of clientelism and patrimonialism

reforms: entrance exams, tenure system, decentralization of state agencies, devolution of power, greater involvement of citizens in determining state policy

IMPORTANCE OF CIVIL SOCIETY

organizations that help people define and advance their own interests

is thought to be the basis of democracy - Alexis de Tocqueville pointed to the expansive civil society in the US as a reason for its democratic success

NGOs are also key here, although have to be careful they won't usurp too much power from the state

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

sometimes state-driven policies work - but not always, and it's difficult to reverse such a system

Now, the WTO - freedom of trade and equality of competition idea

allow markets and industries to evolve without state involvement

problem of the INFORMAL ECONOMY - an economy that exists OUTSIDE of state control, not subject to tax or reform

women play a very large role in the informal economy

But - doesn't produce tax revenue

no regulation - so no protection of the laborers

financial problems - lack of capital to expand - people wind up losing out from this process

To combat this, Grameen Bank has embarked on a MICROCREDIT SCHEME

MICROCREDIT - a system that involves an individual lender and borrower, but borrowing groups are made up of several individuals

enabled the impoverished, and esp. impoverished WOMEN, to engage in self-employment projects that allow them a generation of income, and begin to build up WEALTH

has been TREMENDOUSLY SUCCESSFUL

Grameen Bank - focused on microcredits to Bangladeshi citizens

use of "solidarity groups" - local tribal councils that meet weekly - to ensure that loans are repaid, and they generally are

World Bank: estimates there are 7000 microfinance institutions in the world

serving 16 mill poor people in developing countries

Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) of UN declared 2005 as the International Year of the Microcredit

Reasons why microfinance is a good way to go:

Savings/investment is preferable to aid - independent borrows earn dignity and self-confidence with responsible loan repayment.

Entrepreneurial talent and energy are scarce but valuable resources for economic growth - state needs to find the people who have the initiative to create new enterprises and stimulate the economy

Traditional private banks will not offer microcredit - better because this way, financial sector is secure, while people will still have the chance to qualify for loans, whereas before they might not have

Cost of doing research is MUCH smaller for these microcredit institutions, than would be required to implement extensive, STATE-WIDE policies

Critiques:

Some people turn a profit on the loan (excessive interest rates)

Inability to reach the poorest of the poor

Microcredit dependency

Durability of poverty reduction - how long will it last?