Indian Government

Briefly discuss history of India (British and onwards)

British control (1757 – defeat of Bengali army – until 1947)

Gandhi

Partition

Let’s discuss the structure of the current government first

India is the LARGEST DEMOCRACY in the world – 1.1 bn

A few notes to keep in mind:

Elections – however, are often accompanied by violence and fraud, and in some cases, they have been suspended due to violence

Indian PM – have extensive powers (much more than British), and they have been prone to abuse of these powers (Indira Gandhi in late 70s)

Federal/State – Indian government is federal in theory (in that states balance central power), but central power is in reality much more powerful and has lorded its power over states

Individual liberties – are enshrined in the constitution, but minorities still struggle for rights (Sikhs, Muslims), and the caste system is still in place

Current economic conditions – despite industrializing and the growth of the middle class, millions of Indians are still living in pre-industrial societies, and in abject poverty

The CONSTITUTION

Created a federal republic based on a parliamentary system (which other country had this?)

A very long constitution – 395 articles, 8 schedules, more than 40 amendments

Constitution written in 1946 by a constitutional cmte

Assembly became the de facto govt after independence (1947), and remained in power from 1948-1950 while the document was completed

Had the following aims in mind:

• Establish a democratic, sovereign, and independent republic
• Ensure unity of India
• Offset the potential for violence and disorder
• Set up a secular state
• Establish economic independence

Controversy: The powers given to the president to suspend freedoms during an “emergency” – if India is under attack from neighbors, for instance

Emergencies were declared in 1962 and 1971 (China and Pakistan)

Emergency Powers – loosely interpreted by PM Indira Gandhi in June 1975 (led to martial law from 75-77, when she lost the election)

PRESIDENT

India was unusual, in that it chose a parliamentary system – most other British colonies opted for presidential systems

President – elected for a renewable 5 yr term by an electoral college (both houses of Parliament and state legislators)

VP is chosen the same way

What does the President do?

Technically appoints PM and members of Council of Ministers

Can dissolve government, declare a state of emergency, veto bills

Is commander-in-chief of armed forces and appoints Supreme Court justices

But – must make all their decisions on the advice of the PM

However – it has happened that presidents have stepped in to mediate disputes

PRIME MINISTER, COUNCIL OF MINISTERS

Usually PMs are head of the ruling party – but it’s not always that simple

Nehru – was never officially head of the Congress party, but was seen as a natural successor to Mahatma Gandhi

Current PM – Manhoman Singh – was not the leader of Congress (Sonia Gandhi was), but Gandhi turned down the PM slot, so he inherited it

What does the PM do?

• Appoint/oversee Council of Ministers (the cabinet – 45 members, never meets together – too big, usually 15 or 20 of the most important meet together)
• Personality is very very important

For the first 42 years of independence, India was ruled by the Gandhi-Nehru dynasty

Consolidated under Indira Gandhi

1966 – became world’s first female PM

NEHRU’S daughter, not Gandhi’s

Became increasingly authoritarian

Controlled the government under emergency powers from 1975-1977

Her son, Rajiv Gandhi, became PM in 1983-1989

Indira Gandhi – assassinated by her bodyguards in 1984, Rajiv (on the road to becoming PM again) was assassinated in 1991

Assassinations usually only occur when power becomes PERSONALIZED (discuss this)

Sonia Gandhi – widow of Rajiv, Italian-born, Roman Catholic. Even though she was head of the Congress party which won the 2004 elections, she decided not to become PM, instead settling for leader of the party

LEGISLATURE

Rajya Sabha – Council of States

Upper house, has 245 members, 12 appointed by President to represent the professions and the arts

Census decides how many representatives each state has

Lok Sabha – House of the People

Lower house

More powerful

545 members, serve 5 year terms

525 are elected by voters in states

18 elected by voters in union territories (not state governments, ruled directly by national governments – 7 in total)

2 seats reserved for Anglo-Indians

Average Indian MP – represents 1.9 million people

Lok Sabha – must meet at least twice a year

A debating chamber that provides support/opposition to the president

Follow the same bill procedures as British government – bills can be introduced from either house, but most must be approved first by the Lok Sabha

Most parliamentary debates take place in English or Hindi

Judiciary: SUPREME COURT

Responsible for interpreting the Constitution, arbitrating cases

When founded, had 8 justices, now has 26

Appointed by the President, with consultation with the Court

Mandatory retirement at 65 – so higher turnover rates

Has the power of judicial review – but not as broad as the US because the Indian constitution is so detailed

Took the Indian court longer to establish the principle of judicial review, and so it fought with Parliament for years over the issue

Most recently, the court has played a critical role in uncovering bribery scandals. In 1996, it was discovered that the Congress party had been taking millions of dollars in bribes from 1991 on, including the PM

Resulted in loss of support for the Congress party for many years

Indian Political Parties:

Congress: Also known as the Indian National Congress (INC)

Created in 1885 – was the party of the independence movement

Became nation’s dominant political party

Remained in power from 1947-1977

Nehru’s politics: secularism, socialist economic policies, non-alignment

Remained the policies of the party until Indira Gandhi’s fiascos in the 70s

Party declined in power throughout the 1990s, lost power, and has now regained it in 2004

BJP – Bharatiya Janata Party (Indian Peoples’ Party)

Hindu nationalist party

Basically – India is for Hindus only

Founded in 1980

Very hard – line, conservative policies

Strong national defense (against Pakistan, they mean)

From the party platform: It is these characteristics of Hindu society and the Muslim psyche that remain today. Hindus never lost their tolerance and willingness to change. However Muslims, led by the Islamic clergy and Islamic society’s innate unwillingness to change, did not notice the scars that Hindus felt from the Indian past. It is admirable that Hindus never took advantage of the debt Muslims owed Hindus for their tolerance and non-vengefulness.

Communist Party of India -

Communist Party of India (Marxist) – the difference between the two is the disagreement over when they were founded. Basically, want a more socialist direction in the economy

Vajpayee Government

Rajiv Gandhi is assassinated

Congress is struggling to find a suitable successor – and BJP is growing in popularity

Finally, in 1998, after the Supreme Court has connected the Congress PM to taking bribes, BJP is elected into power

Atal Behari Vajpayee – BJP PM for THREE TERMS (1998-2004)

Ruled with a coalition of a variety of parties – marked the first time India is ruled by a multi-party coalition

Economically – There was a period of strong economic growth

And also, a bevy of reform programs – it used to be that the Indian state was very involved in the creation of new industries and businesses, and stifled innovation and competition

Now, it’s taking more of a free-market approach

Also, V. made it easier for foreign investment to enter the country – before, India was staunchly independent and wanted to limit the amount of foreign currencies coming into the economy

However, Vajpayee is accused of not paying attention to the millions living beneath the poverty line

Nuclear: India had not made any nuclear moves since 1974

In May 1998, Vajpayee decided to test another nuclear weapon

Pakistan followed shortly thereafter

Many Western nations then imposed nuclear sanctions on the country

March 2000 – after the military tests, an Indian Airlines hostage situation, and a coup in Pakistan, Bill Clinton visits India a second time – first time ever

Marks a shift in the importance of India

Let’s discuss Ayodhya (draw map)

Very important to Hindus – believe it is the birthplace of Lord Ram

However, there was a mosque on the very location that Hindus revere

In 1992 – there was a mob that destroyed the 16^th century mosque

BJP was instrumental in this

Led to massive rioting in Uttar Pradesh - 2,000 people died

In 2003, Indian archaeologists declared that they discovered an ancient Hindu temple on the same site – sparking new tensions

In 2005 – militants attacked the site, but were brought down by the Congress-led government

A good time to discuss Muslims in India –

Number 150 million

Problems: Muslims are most likely to be unemployed, illiterate, and poor

Usually live in the very poor areas of big cities like Mumbai, Bengalooru, and Chennai

Do not have access to schools as easily – are now considered India’s new dalit

Currently, the Sachar report, issued by the Supreme Court, is now making the rounds of Parliament, and is describing the gap between Hindus and Muslims within India

Many Indian non-Muslims believe that Muslims lag behind because they are “backwards”

The Gujarat Riots

February 2002 – Godhra Train Burning – A train en route from Godhra to Ayodhya caught fire

The BJP claimed it was Muslims who set fire to the train, which was carrying Hindu pilgrims

Riots consumed the state of Gujarat

Lots of rumors and falsities – Muslims kidnapping girls, etc

Tombs, mosques, buildings, destroyed

Spread from town to town in Gujarat

The Guardian reports – 230 Islamic monuments, including a 400-yr old mosque, were vandalized or destroyed

Led to 790 Muslim deaths, 254 Hindus dead, many rapes, hundreds of injuries

Most shocking – the Gujarat government (BJP led) dragged its feet in stopping the violence

Police did nothing to quell the violence

There are some claims that Hindu nationalist organizations organized the riots and egged it on

Indian government has commissioned many reports on the issue, trying to get to the heart of the matter, but has not been successful yet