DING DONG, PINOCHET'S DEAD!

Captain-general Augusto Pinochet, who has died aged 91, was the most notorious of Latin America's 20th-century military rulers. Dictator of Chile between 1973 and 1990, after which he remained as army commander-in-chief, then senator-for-life, he bestrode the final decades of the Cold War in the region like no one else but Fidel Castro in Cuba. Then, in 1998, a Spanish judge ended his career as he could never have expected: under arrest in London and converted into a symbol of hope that heads of state who violate human rights may no longer escape a reckoning under international law.

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Indian Government

Briefly discuss history of India (British and onwards)

British control (1757 – defeat of Bengali army – until 1947)

Gandhi

Partition

Let’s discuss the structure of the current government first

India is the LARGEST DEMOCRACY in the world – 1.1 bn

A few notes to keep in mind:

Elections – however, are often accompanied by violence and fraud, and in some cases, they have been suspended due to violence

Indian PM – have extensive powers (much more than British), and they have been prone to abuse of these powers (Indira Gandhi in late 70s)

Federal/State – Indian government is federal in theory (in that states balance central power), but central power is in reality much more powerful and has lorded its power over states

Individual liberties – are enshrined in the constitution, but minorities still struggle for rights (Sikhs, Muslims), and the caste system is still in place

Current economic conditions – despite industrializing and the growth of the middle class, millions of Indians are still living in pre-industrial societies, and in abject poverty

The CONSTITUTION

Created a federal republic based on a parliamentary system (which other country had this?)

A very long constitution – 395 articles, 8 schedules, more than 40 amendments

Constitution written in 1946 by a constitutional cmte

Assembly became the de facto govt after independence (1947), and remained in power from 1948-1950 while the document was completed

Had the following aims in mind:

• Establish a democratic, sovereign, and independent republic
• Ensure unity of India
• Offset the potential for violence and disorder
• Set up a secular state
• Establish economic independence

Controversy: The powers given to the president to suspend freedoms during an “emergency” – if India is under attack from neighbors, for instance

Emergencies were declared in 1962 and 1971 (China and Pakistan)

Emergency Powers – loosely interpreted by PM Indira Gandhi in June 1975 (led to martial law from 75-77, when she lost the election)

PRESIDENT

India was unusual, in that it chose a parliamentary system – most other British colonies opted for presidential systems

President – elected for a renewable 5 yr term by an electoral college (both houses of Parliament and state legislators)

VP is chosen the same way

What does the President do?

Technically appoints PM and members of Council of Ministers

Can dissolve government, declare a state of emergency, veto bills

Is commander-in-chief of armed forces and appoints Supreme Court justices

But – must make all their decisions on the advice of the PM

However – it has happened that presidents have stepped in to mediate disputes

PRIME MINISTER, COUNCIL OF MINISTERS

Usually PMs are head of the ruling party – but it’s not always that simple

Nehru – was never officially head of the Congress party, but was seen as a natural successor to Mahatma Gandhi

Current PM – Manhoman Singh – was not the leader of Congress (Sonia Gandhi was), but Gandhi turned down the PM slot, so he inherited it

What does the PM do?

• Appoint/oversee Council of Ministers (the cabinet – 45 members, never meets together – too big, usually 15 or 20 of the most important meet together)
• Personality is very very important

For the first 42 years of independence, India was ruled by the Gandhi-Nehru dynasty

Consolidated under Indira Gandhi

1966 – became world’s first female PM

NEHRU’S daughter, not Gandhi’s

Became increasingly authoritarian

Controlled the government under emergency powers from 1975-1977

Her son, Rajiv Gandhi, became PM in 1983-1989

Indira Gandhi – assassinated by her bodyguards in 1984, Rajiv (on the road to becoming PM again) was assassinated in 1991

Assassinations usually only occur when power becomes PERSONALIZED (discuss this)

Sonia Gandhi – widow of Rajiv, Italian-born, Roman Catholic. Even though she was head of the Congress party which won the 2004 elections, she decided not to become PM, instead settling for leader of the party

LEGISLATURE

Rajya Sabha – Council of States

Upper house, has 245 members, 12 appointed by President to represent the professions and the arts

Census decides how many representatives each state has

Lok Sabha – House of the People

Lower house

More powerful

545 members, serve 5 year terms

525 are elected by voters in states

18 elected by voters in union territories (not state governments, ruled directly by national governments – 7 in total)

2 seats reserved for Anglo-Indians

Average Indian MP – represents 1.9 million people

Lok Sabha – must meet at least twice a year

A debating chamber that provides support/opposition to the president

Follow the same bill procedures as British government – bills can be introduced from either house, but most must be approved first by the Lok Sabha

Most parliamentary debates take place in English or Hindi

Judiciary: SUPREME COURT

Responsible for interpreting the Constitution, arbitrating cases

When founded, had 8 justices, now has 26

Appointed by the President, with consultation with the Court

Mandatory retirement at 65 – so higher turnover rates

Has the power of judicial review – but not as broad as the US because the Indian constitution is so detailed

Took the Indian court longer to establish the principle of judicial review, and so it fought with Parliament for years over the issue

Most recently, the court has played a critical role in uncovering bribery scandals. In 1996, it was discovered that the Congress party had been taking millions of dollars in bribes from 1991 on, including the PM

Resulted in loss of support for the Congress party for many years

Indian Political Parties:

Congress: Also known as the Indian National Congress (INC)

Created in 1885 – was the party of the independence movement

Became nation’s dominant political party

Remained in power from 1947-1977

Nehru’s politics: secularism, socialist economic policies, non-alignment

Remained the policies of the party until Indira Gandhi’s fiascos in the 70s

Party declined in power throughout the 1990s, lost power, and has now regained it in 2004

BJP – Bharatiya Janata Party (Indian Peoples’ Party)

Hindu nationalist party

Basically – India is for Hindus only

Founded in 1980

Very hard – line, conservative policies

Strong national defense (against Pakistan, they mean)

From the party platform: It is these characteristics of Hindu society and the Muslim psyche that remain today. Hindus never lost their tolerance and willingness to change. However Muslims, led by the Islamic clergy and Islamic society’s innate unwillingness to change, did not notice the scars that Hindus felt from the Indian past. It is admirable that Hindus never took advantage of the debt Muslims owed Hindus for their tolerance and non-vengefulness.

Communist Party of India -

Communist Party of India (Marxist) – the difference between the two is the disagreement over when they were founded. Basically, want a more socialist direction in the economy

Vajpayee Government

Rajiv Gandhi is assassinated

Congress is struggling to find a suitable successor – and BJP is growing in popularity

Finally, in 1998, after the Supreme Court has connected the Congress PM to taking bribes, BJP is elected into power

Atal Behari Vajpayee – BJP PM for THREE TERMS (1998-2004)

Ruled with a coalition of a variety of parties – marked the first time India is ruled by a multi-party coalition

Economically – There was a period of strong economic growth

And also, a bevy of reform programs – it used to be that the Indian state was very involved in the creation of new industries and businesses, and stifled innovation and competition

Now, it’s taking more of a free-market approach

Also, V. made it easier for foreign investment to enter the country – before, India was staunchly independent and wanted to limit the amount of foreign currencies coming into the economy

However, Vajpayee is accused of not paying attention to the millions living beneath the poverty line

Nuclear: India had not made any nuclear moves since 1974

In May 1998, Vajpayee decided to test another nuclear weapon

Pakistan followed shortly thereafter

Many Western nations then imposed nuclear sanctions on the country

March 2000 – after the military tests, an Indian Airlines hostage situation, and a coup in Pakistan, Bill Clinton visits India a second time – first time ever

Marks a shift in the importance of India

Let’s discuss Ayodhya (draw map)

Very important to Hindus – believe it is the birthplace of Lord Ram

However, there was a mosque on the very location that Hindus revere

In 1992 – there was a mob that destroyed the 16^th century mosque

BJP was instrumental in this

Led to massive rioting in Uttar Pradesh - 2,000 people died

In 2003, Indian archaeologists declared that they discovered an ancient Hindu temple on the same site – sparking new tensions

In 2005 – militants attacked the site, but were brought down by the Congress-led government

A good time to discuss Muslims in India –

Number 150 million

Problems: Muslims are most likely to be unemployed, illiterate, and poor

Usually live in the very poor areas of big cities like Mumbai, Bengalooru, and Chennai

Do not have access to schools as easily – are now considered India’s new dalit

Currently, the Sachar report, issued by the Supreme Court, is now making the rounds of Parliament, and is describing the gap between Hindus and Muslims within India

Many Indian non-Muslims believe that Muslims lag behind because they are “backwards”

The Gujarat Riots

February 2002 – Godhra Train Burning – A train en route from Godhra to Ayodhya caught fire

The BJP claimed it was Muslims who set fire to the train, which was carrying Hindu pilgrims

Riots consumed the state of Gujarat

Lots of rumors and falsities – Muslims kidnapping girls, etc

Tombs, mosques, buildings, destroyed

Spread from town to town in Gujarat

The Guardian reports – 230 Islamic monuments, including a 400-yr old mosque, were vandalized or destroyed

Led to 790 Muslim deaths, 254 Hindus dead, many rapes, hundreds of injuries

Most shocking – the Gujarat government (BJP led) dragged its feet in stopping the violence

Police did nothing to quell the violence

There are some claims that Hindu nationalist organizations organized the riots and egged it on

Indian government has commissioned many reports on the issue, trying to get to the heart of the matter, but has not been successful yet

A funny political cartoon in this morning's Guardian Online:

The Youth of the World



A very interesting series of maps on graphs detailing the conditions of those under 18 throughout the globe

Earthshakers: the top 100 green campaigners of all time

The Environment Agency has invited experts to name the people who have done most to save the planet

David Adam, environment correspondent
Tuesday November 28, 2006
The Guardian

From the woman who raised the alarm over the profligate use of pesticides to the doctor who discovered that chimney sweeps in 18th century London were dying because of their exposure to soot, the government's Environment Agency has named the scientists, campaigners, writers, economists and naturalists who, in its view, have done the most to save the planet.

To help celebrate its tenth anniversary, a panel of experts listed its 100 greatest eco-heroes of all time. And it does mean all time: St Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) is there, as is Siddartha Gautama Buddha, who died in 483BC.

Earthshakers: the top 100 green campaigners of all time

The Environment Agency has invited experts to name the people who have done most to save the planet

David Adam, environment correspondent
Tuesday November 28, 2006
The Guardian


A view of the Earth from the space shuttle Endeavour shows sunshine reflected off an ocean. Rising global temperatures are increasingly melting icecaps, causing storm havoc and flooding large areas. Photograph: Corbis

From the woman who raised the alarm over the profligate use of pesticides to the doctor who discovered that chimney sweeps in 18th century London were dying because of their exposure to soot, the government's Environment Agency has named the scientists, campaigners, writers, economists and naturalists who, in its view, have done the most to save the planet.

To help celebrate its tenth anniversary, a panel of experts listed its 100 greatest eco-heroes of all time. And it does mean all time: St Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) is there, as is Siddartha Gautama Buddha, who died in 483BC.

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Top of the list is Rachel Carson, a US scientist whose 1962 book, Silent Spring, is credited by many with kick-starting the modern environmental movement. Her account of the damage caused by the unrestrained industrial use of pesticides provoked controversy and fury in equal measures. Barbara Young, the Environment Agency's chief executive, said: "She started many of us off on the road to environmental protection."

At number two is the maverick economist EF Schumacher, a German national rescued from an internment camp in the English countryside by John Keynes, who went on to achieve worldwide fame with his green-tinged economic vision.

Jonathan Porritt, head of the Sustainable Development Commission, is third, with the wildlife broadcaster David Attenborough, fourth. James Lovelock, the UK scientist who developed the Gaia theory of life on earth, is fifth.

The US former vice-president turned documentary film maker Al Gore is placed ninth, while David Bellamy, the television botanist who angered some campaigners with his contrary stance on global warming, still makes the list at 18. There are journalists too, including the Guardian's George Monbiot (23) and Paul Brown (80). And some surprises: few would consider an oil boss an eco-hero, but Lord John Browne has done enough to turn BP around to make the list at 85.

Mark Funnell, managing editor of the agency's magazine Your Environment, which published the list, said: "We tend to get incredibly negative about people and their effect on the planet. There are some who have done fantastic things and we wanted to celebrate that."

Not all the candidates have left their carbon footprints on the real world. Tom and Barbara from the BBC TV show the Good Life are at 91 while Father Christmas completes the list at 100, for his "sleek, no-carbon operation".

1 Rachel Carson, Author of Silent Spring

Seen by many as the patron saint of the green movement, Rachel Carson's reputation was sealed by the 1962 publication of Silent Spring, a passionate and revelatory account of the damage done by the unrestrained use of pesticides.

A writer, scientist and ecologist from rural Pennsylvania, she studied at the Woods Hole Marine Biological Laboratory and received an MA in zoology from Johns Hopkins University in 1932.

First hired by the US Bureau of Fisheries to write radio scripts during the depression, she supplemented her income writing features on natural history for the Baltimore Sun. A 15-year career in the federal service as a scientist and editor followed from 1936, and she rose to editor in chief of all publications for the US Fish and Wildlife Service.

In 1952 she resigned to focus on writing, and published a prize-winning study of the ocean, The Sea Around Us, followed by The Edge of the Sea in 1955. Essentially a biography of the ocean, the books made Carson famous as a naturalist and science writer. Disturbed by the widespread use of synthetic chemical pesticides after the second world war, she switched focus and wrote Silent Spring. The book is credited with launching the concept of the environment as a system that sustains us and that we must learn to live within, rather than a mine, dump or playground. It infuriated government and industrial interests and she was attacked by lobbyists as an alarmist. She died in 1964 after a long battle against breast cancer.

2 EF Schumacher, Green economist

Schumacher's 1973 book Small is Beautiful rewrote the rules by questioning whether the objectives of western economics were desirable. Ernst Friedrich was born in Bonn, but made his name in the UK after attracting the attention of John Keynes. He was feted by alternative circles in the 1960s for unorthodox thinking, and his opposition to nuclear power and the use of chemicals in agriculture. He was an early critic of economic growth as a measure of national progress and helped to found the Soil Association. Small is Beautiful catapulted him to international attention: he was invited to meet US president Jimmy Carter and he even received death threats. He died in 1977.

3 Jonathan Porritt, Government adviser

An early activist with the Green party in the 1970s (then the Ecology party) and later party chairman. He gave up teaching in 1984 to lead Friends of the Earth. In 1996 he helped to found Forum for the Future. Tony Blair made him head of the Sustainable Development Commission in 2001, but he remains a critic of government policy on nuclear power and in 2005 urged the prime minister to "bang heads" across departments to combat greenhouse gas emissions. He irked some activists with his book Capitalism As If The World Matters, in which he argued that environmentalists must embrace a "evolved, intelligent and elegant" form of capitalism.

4 David Attenborough, TV naturalist

The voice of wildlife, conservation and all things that wriggle, fly and roam across planet Earth, Sir David is still going strong at 80. His programmes have brought the natural world into the living rooms of millions over 50 years and his contribution to public awareness of natural science brought him a fellowship of the Royal Society. A Reader's Digest poll this year voted him most trusted celebrity in Britain.

He has drawn rare criticism from some environmentalists, who have complained that his programmes do not sufficiently reflect man's impact on the natural world, although he has become more outspoken for green causes in recent years.

5 James Lovelock, Biologist

Best known for his Gaia theory, which says the Earth's biosphere works as a single living organism, able to manipulate the climate and chemistry of the atmosphere and the oceans to keep them fit for life. The idea was hugely influential among fellow scientists and environmentalists, and religious and spiritual thinkers. An ex-Nasa scientist, his work on the Viking Mars missions sparked an interest in the way planets function.

More recently he courted controversy by public supporting nuclear power and increasingly dire predictions on the consequences of climate change for the human race. His book The Revenge of Gaia predicts that billions will die by the end of the century, with survivors forced to live in the Arctic. He argues that the phrase "global warming" fails to reflect the seriousness of the problem and wants it replaced with "global heating".

6 Wangari Maathai, Conservationist

Africa's "tree woman'"who founded the green belt movement in Kenya in 1977 and was awarded the Nobel peace prize in 2004. The movement has since planted more than 10m trees to prevent soil erosion and provide firewood for cooking fires. Most have been planted by poor women in the villages of Kenya, restoring their environment and providing paid work. Born in 1940 in Nyeri, Wangari, she trained as a scientist in the US before returning to Kenya to do a PhD. She gained worldwide attention in 1998 by helping to defeat plans by Kenya's president to clear hundreds of acres of forest for luxury housing. Jailed several times by previous administrations, she was elected to parliament in 2002 and is now environment minister.

7 Prince of Wales, Green royal

Once derided for talking to plants, Charles Windsor's passion for the environment and green issues such as locally produced organic foods have won him admirers and brought the issues to public attention. Last year he spoke out on climate change, calling it the greatest challenge to face man.

He said: "We should be treating, I think, the whole issue of climate change and global warming with a far greater degree of priority than I think is happening now."

8 William Morris, Craftsman and writer

Remembered by environmentalists for his pioneering predictions of the problems caused by unsustainable industrialisation. His utopian view of a society in harmony with nature still inspires generations of sustainable-living advocates.

9 Al Gore, US politician

US former vice president defeated by George Bush in the infamous "hanging chad" recount presidential election of 2000. His long-lasting interest in environmental matters, and climate change in particular, was sealed with this year's release of his film An Inconvenient Truth, which has helped to drive the issue on to the mainstream agenda.

10 Gro Harlem Brundtland, Former Norwegian PM

The Scandinavian polar opposite to Margaret Thatcher during the 1980s, her views of sustainable development seemed radical at the time, but are common political language now. Her 1987 report, Our Common Future, laid the ground for the 1992 Rio Earth summit.

11 Richard Sandbrook, Campaigner

The biologist and accountant, who died last year aged 59, had a profound influence on the green movement and the world of international development. He helped to set up Friends of the Earth UK, the Eden project and Forum for the Future. At the International Institute for Environment and Development he was instrumental in bringing together the poverty and environment agendas.

12 Amory Lovins, US energy guru

Top green thinker who launched Friends of the Earth in Britain and founded the Rocky Mountain Institute, a technology thinktank that develops blueprints for low-energy devices such as the "hypercar". He says soft technologies can cut energy use by three-quarters.

13 Vandana Shiva, Campaigner

Physicist and ecologist, founding director of the Research Foundation for Science, Technology and Ecology in India and a leader in the International Forum on Globalisation. She has had a vast impact on a range of issues from forest conservation to GM crops,from world trade policy to organic farming.

14 Ansel Adams, Wilderness photographer

Well known for his photographs of the mountain ranges, deserts, rivers and skies of the US, Adams was a passionate lover of the outdoors and an active conservationist. He commented: "My approach to photography is based on my belief in the vigour and values of the world of nature - in the aspects of grandeur and of the minutiae all about us."

15 Fritjof Capra, Austrian physicist

An Austrian doctor of theoretical physics, based in California, he combines an interest in eastern mysticism with a fascination for what makes the planet tick. His most recent book, Hidden Systems: A Science for Sustainable Living, argues the need for a natural rather than a technical toolkit to tackle the impending global crisis.

16 Aldo Leopold, US ecologist

Widely acknowledged as the founder of wildlife management as a discipline and profession, he was one of the greatest US ecologists. His writings on conservation and the value of the wild to civilisation are highly regarded. The most famous, A Sand County Almanac, inspired many to follow in his footsteps.

17 Chico Mendez, Brazilian anti-logger activist

A Brazilian rubber tapper, unionist and environmental activist who fought to stop logging in the Amazon rainforest for cattle ranching. He was murdered by ranchers opposed to his activism.

18 David Bellamy, TV botanist

A formidable campaigner for green causes, including saving a Tasmanian rainforest from flooding by a dam project. In recent years his reputation has been tarnished by public statements sceptical of climate change. Fierce hater of wind farms.

19 Joseph Bazalgette, Victorian engineer

The architect of central London's sewer system who saved the city from the cholera epidemics that had ravaged it in the early 19th century.

20 John James Audubon, US naturalist and artist

Born in 1785, his seminal work, Birds of America, a collection of 435 life-sized prints, is still a standard by which modern day bird artists are measured. While living on the family estate near Philadelphia he conducted the first known bird-banding experiment in North America by tying strings around the legs of Eastern Phoebes.

21 Sir Peter Scott, conservationist

22 Tim Smit, record producer turned gardener

23 George Monbiot, author and Guardian columnist

24 Michael Meacher, former Labour environment minister

25 Ken Livingstone, mayor of London

26 Tony Juniper, campaigner

27 John Muir, conservationist

28 Kirkpatrick Macmillan, bicycle inventor

29 Arnold Schwarzenegger, bodybuilder turned actor turned US politician

30 John Ruskin, Victorian critic

31 David Bower, Friends of the Earth founder

32 Jim Hansen, Nasa scientist

33 Thomas Malthus, economist

34 Percival Potts, public health pioneer

35 David Suzuki, ecologist and television presenter

36 Max Nicholson, ornithologist

37 Mayer Hillman, climate change expert

38 Octavia Hill, open spaces campaigner

39 Dai Qing, Chinese anti-dam campaigner

40 Paul Johnson, Greenpeace scientist

41 Paul de Jongh, Dutch author

42 Dionisio Ribeiro Filho, Brazilian environmentalist

43 Andrew Lees, campaigner

44 Mike Hands, tropical ecologist

45 Petra Kelly, German green politician

46 John Dower, national parks visionary

47 St Francis of Assisi, patron saint of animals and ecology

48 Jane Goodall, primatologist

49 Henry David Thoreau, author

50 Sunita Narain, Indian campaigner

51 Lester Brown, green policy expert

52 G K Chesterton, author

53 Swampy, roads protester

54 Sir John Banham, green industrialist

55 The people of Bougainville, eco-revolutionaries

56 Caroline Lucas, green party MEP

57 Teddy Goldsmith, Ecologist magazine founder

58 George Waterson, former RSPB director

59 Gerald Durrell, author and zoologist

60 Mark Mayer, journalist

61 Marion Shoard, writer and broadcaster

62 Nan Fairbrother, author

63 George Baker, urban conservationist

64 Dame Miriam Rothschild, scientist

65 Charlene Spretnak, US author and activist

66 Richard St Barbe Baker, forester

67 Graham Wynne, RSPB chief executive

68 Conrad Waddington, animal geneticist

69 Rudolph Bahro, author

70 Nick Hildyard, campaigner

71 Christopher Lloyd, wildlife gardener

72 Jane Jacobs, Canadian writer and activist

73 Robert Heilbronner, economist

74 Michael Braungart and Bill McDonagh, co-founders of green chemicals firm MBDC

75 Karl Henrik Robert, Swedish cancer researcher

76 Sue Clifford, campaigner

77 Colin Ward, anarchist and writer

78 Stephen Jay Gould, evolutionary scientist

79 Paul Ekins, green policy expert

80 Paul Brown, journalist

81 Mahatma Gandhi, Indian leader

82 John Stewart, roads campaigner

83 Rosamund Kidman Cox, journalist

84 Bob Flowerdew, green gardener

85 Lord John Browne, BP boss

86 Colin Tudge, author

87 Charles Darwin, naturalist

88 Tony Bradshaw, urban ecologist

89 Dalai Lama, spiritual leader

90 Herman Daly, author

91 Tom and Barbara from the Good Life, TV eco warriors

92 Siddartha Gautama Buddha, spiritual leader

93 Ted Green, trees and fungi expert

94 Alfred Wallace, naturalist and rival of 87

95 Samuel Taylor Coleridge, romantic poet

96 Margot Wallstrom, EU politician

97 Dale Vince, green energy pioneer

98 Joe Strummer, former Clash frontman turned carbon offset pioneer

99 Jamie Oliver, television chef

100 Father Christmas, carbon-free delivery

Please be sure to check your email and print out the attached article. We will be reading it and discussing it in class tomorrow, in addition to the Nigerian articles.